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In the Autologous Stem Cell Transplantation International Scleroderma (ASTIS) trial (autologous HSCT versus monthly intravenous CYC for 12 months), the mean improvement in mRSS from baseline to 24 months was greater in the HSCT group (−19.9) than in the control group (−9.8) (P < .001) [16].
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In the Scleroderma: Cyclophosphamide Or Transplantation (SCOT) trial (autologous HSCT versus monthly intravenous CYC for 12 months) [17], numerically more patients in the HSCT arm experienced a clinically meaningful improvement in mRSS compared with patients in the CYC arm. There was also a long-term survival benefit associated with HSCT in the SCOT trial; however, the results of the survival analysis should be interpreted with caution since the comparator arm only received CYC for 12 months, and typically patients with SSc receive immunosuppression beyond 1 year. In clinical practice, a considerable proportion of patients with dcSSc do not respond adequately or are intolerant to treatment with CYC or MMF. New treatment options are needed for patients who possess a progressive, treatment-resistant phenotype of cutaneous sclerosis. Promising therapeutic agents, such as tocilizumab [18] and abatacept [19], have failed to meet the primary endpoint of change in mRSS in RCTs, leaving an unmet clinical need (Table 2).
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The anti-fibrotic, pirfenidone, is currently under investigation in a phase II trial for SSc-ILD (SLS III), in which a key secondary endpoint is a change in mRSS (NCT03221257). An open-label phase II study of pirfenidone in SSc-ILD suggested an acceptable safety and tolerability profile of this agent [24]. In SLS III, pirfenidone is combined with upfront MMF therapy to determine whether combining an anti-fibrotic with MMF leads to an improvement in skin and lung outcomes compared with MMF alone. Another novel anti-fibrotic, nintedanib was recently approved by the FDA for the treatment of SSc-ILD as described further below; however, this phase III study failed to detect a significant treatment effect for nintedanib on mRSS [25]. The B-cell depleting agent, rituximab, is frequently used in clinical practice to treat patients with dcSSc who fail to respond to conventional immunosuppressive therapies.
2.1. Cutaneous sclerosis
Large RCTs of rituximab for SSc have not been performed; however, one relatively small RCT demonstrated that rituximab treatment led to a greater improvement in mRSS at 6 months compared with CYC [26]. In addition, small, open-label studies have sildenafil cenforce demonstrated favorable effects on skin thickening [27,28]. A case-control analysis of 63 SSc patients from European Scleroderma Trial and Research (EUSTAR) cohort demonstrated that the patients with dcSSc who received rituximab experienced a greater reduction in MRSS compared with matched controls (N = 25; −24.0 ± 5.2% vs −7.7 ± 4.3%; p = 0.03) [29]. A small observational study of 18 patients with SSc demonstrated that combining rituximab with MMF is safe and leads to significant improvements in mRSS [30]. As discussed further below, there is also evidence that rituximab may possess disease-modifying effects on ILD in SSc, suggesting that this agent may play a role in the management of patients with treatment-resistant skin and lung disease. In a phase II study of 43 patients with dcSSc, treatment with lenabasum was associated with an improvement in the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) Combined Response Index in diffuse cutaneous Systemic Sclerosis (CRISS) score (33% achieved a positive response in the lenabasum arm compared with 0% in the placebo arm) and there was a trend for a significant treatment effect on mRSS (P = 0.085) [21]. The CRISS is a composite response index derived from patients with dcSSc and is comprised of the following endpoints with differential weighting: mRSS, forced vital capacity (FVC)%-predicted, Health Assessment Questionnaire Disability Index (HAQ-DI), Patient Global Assessment, and Physician Global Assessment [22]. In the open-label extension to the Phase II study, a clinically meaningful improvement in mRSS was observed under treatment with lenabasum (−8.4 points at 6 months, −9.8 points at 12 months, and −10.7 points at 18 months), although given that there was no placebo arm in the extension study, it is unclear whether this represents a continued treatment effect versus the natural history of the disease [23]. The drug appears to be well-tolerated, and the phase III study (NCT03398837) has completed enrollment (N = 365), and the expected study completion date is in 2020. The anti-fibrotic, pirfenidone, is currently under investigation in a phase II trial for SSc-ILD (SLS III), in which a key secondary endpoint is a change in mRSS (NCT03221257).
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An open-label phase II study of pirfenidone in SSc-ILD suggested an acceptable safety and tolerability profile of this agent [24]. In SLS III, pirfenidone is combined with upfront MMF therapy to determine whether combining an anti-fibrotic with MMF leads to an improvement in skin and lung outcomes compared with MMF alone. Another novel anti-fibrotic, nintedanib was recently approved by the FDA for the treatment of SSc-ILD as described further below; however, this phase III study failed to detect a significant treatment effect for nintedanib on mRSS [25].
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The B-cell depleting agent, rituximab, is frequently used in clinical practice to treat patients with dcSSc who fail to respond to conventional immunosuppressive therapies.
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Large RCTs of rituximab for SSc have not been performed; however, one relatively small RCT demonstrated that rituximab treatment led to a greater improvement in mRSS at 6 months compared with CYC [26]. In addition, small, open-label studies have sildenafil cenforce demonstrated favorable effects on skin thickening [27,28]. A case-control analysis of 63 SSc patients from European Scleroderma Trial and Research (EUSTAR) cohort demonstrated that the patients with dcSSc who received rituximab experienced a greater reduction in MRSS compared with matched controls (N = 25; −24.0 ± 5.2% vs −7.7 ± 4.3%; p = 0.03) [29]. A small observational study of 18 patients with SSc demonstrated that combining rituximab with MMF is safe and leads to significant improvements in mRSS [30]. As discussed further below, there is also evidence that rituximab may possess disease-modifying effects on ILD in SSc, suggesting that this agent may play a role in the management of patients with treatment-resistant skin and lung disease. A phase II study combining rituximab with belimumab and MMF is ongoing (NCT03222492). The majority of patients with SSc have interstitial abnormalities identified on high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) imaging [31]. Patients with both lcSSc and dcSSc can develop ILD, and when present, the development of ILD in SSc increases the risk of mortality by at least threefold [32]. Furthermore, data from observational studies in both the US [33] and Europe [34] suggest that ILD is likely the leading cause of SSc-related death.
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While progression rates of ILD in SSc vary [35], patients typically experience progression within the first 4–5 years of their presentation [33]; therefore, treatment should be initiated early in affected patients to prevent ILD progression, especially in patients who possess features that increase their likelihood of ILD progression (e.g. Scl-70 antibody presence, male sex, African American race) [36]. The treatment paradigm for SSc-ILD has historically involved the initiation of immunosuppressive therapy in patients who exhibit signs of or risk factors for the progression of ILD.
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In the Autologous Stem Cell Transplantation International Scleroderma (ASTIS) trial (autologous HSCT versus monthly intravenous CYC for 12 months), the mean improvement in mRSS from baseline to 24 months was greater in the HSCT group (−19.9) than in the control group (−9.8) (P < .001) [16]. In the Scleroderma: Cyclophosphamide Or Transplantation (SCOT) trial (autologous HSCT versus monthly intravenous CYC for 12 months) [17], numerically more patients in the HSCT arm experienced a clinically meaningful improvement in mRSS compared with patients in the CYC arm. There was also a long-term survival benefit associated with HSCT in the SCOT trial; however, the results of the survival analysis should be interpreted with caution since the comparator arm only received CYC for 12 months, and typically patients with SSc receive immunosuppression beyond 1 year. In clinical practice, a considerable proportion of patients with dcSSc do not respond adequately or are intolerant to treatment with CYC or MMF. New treatment options are needed for patients who possess a progressive, treatment-resistant phenotype of cutaneous sclerosis.
Erektile Dysfunktion (ED)
Promising therapeutic agents, such as tocilizumab [18] and abatacept [19], have failed to meet the primary endpoint of change in mRSS in RCTs, leaving an unmet clinical need (Table 2). In a phase II study of 43 patients with dcSSc, treatment with lenabasum was associated with an improvement in the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) Combined Response Index in diffuse cutaneous Systemic Sclerosis (CRISS) score (33% achieved a positive response in the lenabasum arm compared with 0% in the placebo arm) and there was a trend for a significant treatment effect on mRSS (P = 0.085) [21]. The CRISS is a composite response index derived from patients with dcSSc and is comprised of the following endpoints with differential weighting: mRSS, forced vital capacity (FVC)%-predicted, Health Assessment Questionnaire Disability Index (HAQ-DI), Patient Global Assessment, and Physician Global Assessment [22]. In the open-label extension to the Phase II study, a clinically meaningful improvement in mRSS was observed under treatment with lenabasum (−8.4 points at 6 months, −9.8 points at 12 months, and −10.7 points at 18 months), although given that there was no placebo arm in the extension study, it is unclear whether this represents a continued treatment effect versus the natural history of the disease [23]. The drug appears to be well-tolerated, and the phase III study (NCT03398837) has completed enrollment (N = 365), and the expected study completion date is in 2020. In SLS I (oral CYC versus placebo), treatment with CYC led to significant improvements in the FVC%-predicted [10], total lung capacity (TLC)%-predicted [10], radiographic fibrosis [37], and quality of life [38] at 12 months.
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However, a year after cessation of CYC, there was no difference in the FVC%-predicted and TLC%-predicted between patients randomized to CYC versus placebo [39].
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In this study, patients were randomized to 12 months of nintedanib versus 12 months of placebo, and the entry criteria permitted patients to continue treatment with MMF if they were taking a stable dose of MMF for at least 6 months prior to screening. Approximately half of all patients in each study arm were taking MMF at baseline. The rate of decline of FVC (mL/year) was greatest in the placebo arm not on background MMF at baseline (−119.3), and lowest in the nintedanib arm taking MMF at baseline (−40.2), and similar in the nintedanib alone arm (−63.9) and placebo arm on background MMF at baseline (−66.5). In contrast with MMF and CYC [12,41], treatment with nintedanib did not lead to an improvement in self-reported dyspnea as measured by the St. George’s Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ), nor mRSS [25].
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It is unclear why patients randomized to nintedanib did not experience an improvement in the SGRQ relative to placebo; however, it may be because responses to this questionnaire are influenced by extra-pulmonary manifestations of SSc not targeted by nintedanib (e.g. In terms of safety, patients on combination therapy (MMF + nintedanib) appeared to have a similar adverse event profile compared with patients on nintedanib alone; however, the majority of patients on nintedanib (76%) reported diarrhea (compared with 32% in the placebo arm), and this should be taken into consideration, particularly when treating patients who have co-morbid SSc-related lower gastrointestinal tract involvement. Although it is difficult to draw meaningful conclusions about the benefits of upfront combination therapy (MMF + nintedanib) for SSc-ILD since patients were not randomized to MMF in the SENSCIS trial, the results support the hypothesis that using nintedanib as add-on therapy to MMF may be advantageous from a lung function standpoint. Moreover, during a 12-year follow-up period, there was no difference in long-term morbidity and mortality outcomes between patients randomized to CYC versus placebo in SLS I [40], suggesting that 1 year of treatment does not lead to a sustained improvement in health outcomes in SSc-ILD, and maintenance therapy is important. In SLS II [12], treatment with MMF for 24 months led to a significant improvement in FVC%-predicted [12], quantitative radiographic fibrosis [37], and patient-reported outcomes [41]. There was no significant difference in efficacy outcomes between patients randomized to MMF versus CYC in SLS II, although MMF was better tolerated and had a more favorable safety profile compared with CYC in this study [12]. For instance, there were 15 versus 4 premature study drug with-drawals in the CYC and MMF arms, respectively, and over twice as many deaths in the CYC arm (11 CYC; 5 MMF), with most deaths attributable to progressive of ILD.
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In SLS II [12], treatment with MMF for 24 months led to a significant improvement in FVC%-predicted [12], quantitative radiographic fibrosis [37], and patient-reported outcomes [41]. There was no significant difference in efficacy outcomes between patients randomized to MMF versus CYC in SLS II, although MMF was better tolerated and had a more favorable safety profile compared with CYC in this study [12]. For instance, there were 15 versus 4 premature study drug with-drawals in the CYC and MMF arms, respectively, and over twice as many deaths in the CYC arm (11 CYC; 5 MMF), with most deaths attributable to progressive of ILD. When the MMF arm of SLS II was compared with the placebo arm of SLS I (with sildenafil citrate 100 mg adjustment for baseline disease severity), patients treated with MMF demonstrated a significant improvement in FVC % predicted, DLCO% predicted, and dyspnea compared with the placebo group [14]. The collective findings from SLS I and II suggest that: (1) the duration of treatment for SSc-ILD should be longer than 1 year to yield a sustained benefit; (2) treatment with MMF and CYC both lead to short-term improvements in lung function, radiographic fibrosis, and quality of life; and (3) MMF appears to be safer and better tolerated than CYC.
Expert opinion:
Similar to cutaneous sclerosis, a substantial portion of patients with SSc-ILD experience progression of ILD despite treatment with CYC or MMF. HSCT may ameliorate ILD in carefully selected patients with dcSSc [16,17]. In the ASTIS study, in which 86% and 87% of the patients randomized to HSCT and CYC, respectively, had ILD, more patients in the HSCT arm experienced an improvement in the FVC compared with the CYC arm [16]. Similarly, in the SCOT study, in which 100% and 95% of the patients randomized to HSCT and CYC, respectively, had ILD, fewer patients randomized to HSCT experienced respiratory failure in the HSCT arm (N = 5) compared with the CYC arm (N = 13) at 1 year [17]. The tyrosine kinase inhibitor, nintedanib, was recently found to slow the rate of progression of ILD in the largest RCT (SENSCIS) ever conducted in SSc (N = 576) [25]. When the MMF arm of SLS II was compared with the placebo arm of SLS I (with sildenafil citrate 100 mg adjustment for baseline disease severity), patients treated with MMF demonstrated a significant improvement in FVC % predicted, DLCO% predicted, and dyspnea compared with the placebo group [14]. The collective findings from SLS I and II suggest that: (1) the duration of treatment for SSc-ILD should be longer than 1 year to yield a sustained benefit; (2) treatment with MMF and CYC both lead to short-term improvements in lung function, radiographic fibrosis, and quality of life; and (3) MMF appears to be safer and better tolerated than CYC. Similar to cutaneous sclerosis, a substantial portion of patients with SSc-ILD experience progression of ILD despite treatment with CYC or MMF. HSCT may ameliorate ILD in carefully selected patients with dcSSc [16,17].
3. Conclusion
In the ASTIS study, in which 86% and 87% of the patients randomized to HSCT and CYC, respectively, had ILD, more patients in the HSCT arm experienced an improvement in the FVC compared with the CYC arm [16]. Similarly, in the SCOT study, in which 100% and 95% of the patients randomized to HSCT and CYC, respectively, had ILD, fewer patients randomized to HSCT experienced respiratory failure in the HSCT arm (N = 5) compared with the CYC arm (N = 13) at 1 year [17]. The tyrosine kinase inhibitor, nintedanib, was recently found to slow the rate of progression of ILD in the largest RCT (SENSCIS) ever conducted in SSc (N = 576) [25]. In this study, patients were randomized to 12 months of nintedanib versus 12 months of placebo, and the entry criteria permitted patients to continue treatment with MMF if they were taking a stable dose of MMF for at least 6 months prior to screening.
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Approximately half of all patients in each study arm were taking MMF at baseline. The rate of decline of FVC (mL/year) was greatest in the placebo arm not on background MMF at baseline (−119.3), and lowest in the nintedanib arm taking MMF at baseline (−40.2), and similar in the nintedanib alone arm (−63.9) and placebo arm on background MMF at baseline (−66.5). In contrast with MMF and CYC [12,41], treatment with nintedanib did not lead to an improvement in self-reported dyspnea as measured by the St. George’s Respiratory Questionnaire (SGRQ), nor mRSS [25]. It is unclear why patients randomized to nintedanib did not experience an improvement in the SGRQ relative to placebo; however, it may be because responses to this questionnaire are influenced by extra-pulmonary manifestations of SSc not targeted by nintedanib (e.g.
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A phase II study combining rituximab with belimumab and MMF is ongoing (NCT03222492). The majority of patients with SSc have interstitial abnormalities identified on high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) imaging [31]. Patients with both lcSSc and dcSSc can develop ILD, and when present, the development of ILD in SSc increases the risk of mortality by at least threefold [32]. Furthermore, data from observational studies in both the US [33] and Europe [34] suggest that ILD is likely the leading cause of SSc-related death. While progression rates of ILD in SSc vary [35], patients typically experience progression within the first 4–5 years of their presentation [33]; therefore, treatment should be initiated early in affected patients to prevent ILD progression, especially in patients who possess features that increase their likelihood of ILD progression (e.g.
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Scl-70 antibody presence, male sex, African American race) [36]. The treatment paradigm for SSc-ILD has historically involved the initiation of immunosuppressive therapy in patients who exhibit signs of or risk factors for the progression of ILD. In SLS I (oral CYC versus placebo), treatment with CYC led to significant improvements in the FVC%-predicted [10], total lung capacity (TLC)%-predicted [10], radiographic fibrosis [37], and quality of life [38] at 12 months. However, a year after cessation of CYC, there was no difference in the FVC%-predicted and TLC%-predicted between patients randomized to CYC versus placebo [39]. Moreover, during a 12-year follow-up period, there was no difference in long-term morbidity and mortality outcomes between patients randomized to CYC versus placebo in SLS I [40], suggesting that 1 year of treatment does not lead to a sustained improvement in health outcomes in SSc-ILD, and maintenance therapy is important. In terms of safety, patients on combination therapy (MMF + nintedanib) appeared to have a similar adverse event profile compared with patients on nintedanib alone; however, the majority of patients on nintedanib (76%) reported diarrhea (compared with 32% in the placebo arm), and this should be taken into consideration, particularly when treating patients who have co-morbid SSc-related lower gastrointestinal tract involvement. Although it is difficult to draw meaningful conclusions about the benefits of upfront combination therapy (MMF + nintedanib) for SSc-ILD since patients were not randomized to MMF in the SENSCIS trial, the results support the hypothesis that using nintedanib as add-on therapy to MMF may be advantageous from a lung function standpoint.
